Why doesn't Macbeth kill Macduff? How is this significant to the play?

In Act IV, Scene 1, the apparitions warn Macbeth to be careful of Macduff, but also maintain that "none of woman born/ Shall harm Macbeth."

Macbeth is happy to hear this, but soon decides he will rid himself of Macduff anyway, just to ensure his chances of maintaining his hold on power. He soon discovers Macduff has fled England, and is miffed he didn't act sooner. To ensure no heirs follow Macduff, he orders Macduff's...

In Act IV, Scene 1, the apparitions warn Macbeth to be careful of Macduff, but also maintain that "none of woman born/ Shall harm Macbeth."

Macbeth is happy to hear this, but soon decides he will rid himself of Macduff anyway, just to ensure his chances of maintaining his hold on power. He soon discovers Macduff has fled England, and is miffed he didn't act sooner. To ensure no heirs follow Macduff, he orders Macduff's wife and children to be killed.

The castle of Macduff I will surprise,

Seize upon Fife, give to th' edge o' th' sword

His wife, his babes, and all unfortunate souls

That trace him in his line.

In Act V, Scene 7, Macbeth kills young Siward and proclaims he wasn't afraid to face the warrior because Siward was born of a woman. In Act V, Scene 8, Macbeth initially refuses to fight Macduff; he claims he's killed enough of Macduff's family members and wants to refrain from killing Macduff, too. Furthermore, Macbeth argues that he leads "a charmèd life, which must not yield/ To one of woman born."

At this point, Macbeth doesn't make any moves to kill Macduff because he thinks Macduff is no threat to him. It is only after Macduff asserts that he was "untimely ripped" from his mother's womb that Macbeth begins to take his challenger seriously.

So, it's significant that Macbeth doesn't initially manage to kill Macduff. Earlier in the play, Macduff escaped Macbeth's clutches when he fled England. Later, on the battlefield, Macbeth initially refuses to engage Macduff. He's only forced to fight Macduff when Macduff corners him. In the end, Macduff beheads Macbeth and proclaims Malcolm king of Scotland. In the play, Macduff fills his role as the one man who can kill Macbeth; his character fulfills the earlier prophecy that Macbeth should both beware of Macduff and be wary of the man who is not "born from a woman."

In Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, what does Scout compare the courtroom atmosphere to?

Scout compares the atmosphere within the courtroom to the impression she once felt the winter before.

One February morning, for whatever reason, Scout experienced an ominous silence outdoors:

...the mockingbirds were still, and the carpenters had stopped hammering on Miss Maudie's new house, and every wood door in the neighborhood was shut as tight[ly] as the door of the Radley house. A deserted, waiting, empty street....

Now, the courtroom has this same feeling of a...

Scout compares the atmosphere within the courtroom to the impression she once felt the winter before.

One February morning, for whatever reason, Scout experienced an ominous silence outdoors:

...the mockingbirds were still, and the carpenters had stopped hammering on Miss Maudie's new house, and every wood door in the neighborhood was shut as tight[ly] as the door of the Radley house. A deserted, waiting, empty street....

Now, the courtroom has this same feeling of a suspension of time. It is as though all the people in the courtroom are collectively holding their breath, not daring to think of what they will soon hear from the foreman of the jury. Scout and Jem and others know that the innocent "mockingbird" Tom Robinson, too, has stopped any "singing," for he is all too aware that his life hangs in the balance. In one sense, Mayella's untrue accusations, Bob Ewell's overt racism, and the oppressive of Jim Crow regime are all "doors" that are shut "tightly" against Tom.

Little Scout would not be familiar with Shakespeare's Hamlet, but the troubled young Dane comments in a similar fashion upon the state of things after he has been visited by his murdered father's ghost: "This time is out of joint." The eerie silence in the courtroom and the wicked injustice of Tom's trial serve to make Scout feel as though "time is out of joint."

How did Islamic civilizations spread to encompass such an extensiveempire?

Like most civilizations, Islamic civilizations expanded their empire through conquest and effective leadership. The Muslim world had several characteristics that aided its expansion.

1) Location, location, location. Because Islam began in the Arabian Peninsula, which is at a crossroads of Asia, Europe, and Africa, the empire naturally expanded into each of these regions. Many of the nearby civilizations, such as the Byzantine, were weak and unorganized at the time, so Muslim leaders were able to...

Like most civilizations, Islamic civilizations expanded their empire through conquest and effective leadership. The Muslim world had several characteristics that aided its expansion.

1) Location, location, location. Because Islam began in the Arabian Peninsula, which is at a crossroads of Asia, Europe, and Africa, the empire naturally expanded into each of these regions. Many of the nearby civilizations, such as the Byzantine, were weak and unorganized at the time, so Muslim leaders were able to enter and overtake these competing empires and continue with their expansion. Islam gained followers, often supporters who disliked their current lives and leadership and hoped to have access to a new way of life under Arab rule. Fun fact: Islam does not allow leaders to force conversion on others, so most conversion to Islam was completely the free will of the conquered people.

2) The Religion. When Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) died, the Muslim religion was a little unclear on who should be leader and how succession worked in general. As a result, there were splits in the religion both in terms of beliefs, such as Sunni and Shi'a, and in terms of leadership. Different caliphates (or ruling families) that rose to power over several hundred years moved the "headquarters" of Islam around according to their own needs and interests. That's how centers of Islam developed in places like southern Spain.

3) Muslim culture. The Muslim expansion into vastly different areas meant both a spread of Muslim learning and interests and a blending of Muslim learning with other cultures. This helped to bolster the civilization because it brought great discoveries to different parts of the world by combining ancient knowledge from Greeks, Romans, etc. with new discoveries by Muslims.

What is the main idea of each paragraph in "How It Feels to Be Colored Me"?

Paragraph 1: The one sentence paragraph also sets up the overall tone of Hurston's essay; she is unapologetic about both her identity and her heritage.  She will say later in the essay, in paragraph 6, that she is "not tragically colored."

2: Eatonville is a significant town in Florida because it was an all-black self-governing town.  The fact that Hurston does not realize she is colored is because of her childhood.  She really did not feel discrimination because she was surrounded by those who looked like her.  She only knew whites by those who traveled through her town on their way to, or from, Orlando.

3: This paragraph again shows Hurston's personality.  She uses words that are linked to the theater: the porch was a "gallery seat" for her to watch the drivers going through town; the "proscenium box" was a place closest to the front of the stage.  Hurston was a one-girl welcoming committee and asks that the "Miami Chamber of Commerce will please take notice."

4: Again, Hurston talks about the difference between herself as colored and the whites who drive through town.  She ends the paragraph with her sense of place in Eatonville: she states, "[Eatonville] deplored any joyful tendencies in me, but I was their Zora nevertheless.  I belonged to them, to the nearby hotels, to the county—everybody's Zora."

5: Hurston does not elaborate on why she went to Jacksonville at thirteen, but at that time, her mother passed away and her father remarried.  It was then that Hurston was sent to a boarding school in Jacksonville. 

6: Hurston did not share the view of many African Americans at this time (the late 1920s and 1930s) that they were being held back because of their heritage.  (This sentiment would put her at odds with other writers and artists of the Harlem Renaissance.)  Instead, she says, "I am too busy sharpening my oyster knife"—this knife is a small, sharp tool used to pry open oyster shells—again, a view of her personality as sharp and aggressive.

7: Again, Hurston shares that being black is not something that will hold her back.  Instead of looking at slavery as something to dwell on and blame for her lot in life, she states: 

The terrible struggle that made me an American out of a potential slave said "On the line!" The Reconstruction said "Get set!" and the generation before said "Go!" I am off to a flying start and I must not halt in the stretch to look behind and weep. Slavery is the price I paid for civilization, and the choice was not with me.

8: Hurston also feels that her "coloredness" gives her more push to excel than whites would ever have.  In a way, she feels there is no other way to go but up.

9: Hurston also states that she feels more like the girl from Eatonville than the woman who is made aware of her skin color.

10: She uses a great metaphor in this paragraph about how she is "covered by the waters" when at Barnard College, and she exists; when the waters "ebb," she is herself again.

11: Jazz music was hitting mainstream culture in this time, and Hurston's description reveals her heritage to her African roots. She feels the primal tones of the music and hearkens back to the hunters in the jungles of Africa.  However, her white friend who is with her is simply "sitting motionless in his seat, smoking calmly."

12: No more to add here.

13: This paragraph continues to contrast Hurston and her friend.  For Hurston, she sees colors and feels emotions; for her friend, he is white in both what he feels and what he sees. He is just as pale as his complexion.

14: Hurston continues to make her feels more emotive.  She gives the audience imagery and absolute statements: "I belong to no race nor time. I am the eternal feminine with its string of beads."

15: This paragraph continues in much the same vein as the fourteenth.

16: Again, Hurston's confidence comes through: "Sometimes, I feel discriminated against, but it does not make me angry. It merely astonishes me. How can any deny themselves the pleasure of my company? It's beyond me." She feels she is too great a character for anyone to not want to be in her company.

17: This last paragraph is one of her best metaphors.  It is interesting to note the objects she includes in the bags: 

A first-water diamond, an empty spool, bits of broken glass, lengths of string, a key to a door long since crumbled away, a rusty knife-blade, old shoes saved for a road that never was and never will be, a nail bent under the weight of things too heavy for any nail, a dried flower or two still a little fragrant

All of these objects can symbolize something in life, but her point is that it does not matter the color of our skin; we all contain a jumble of "small things priceless and worthless." These are the objects that have significance to us.

How would you summarize "The Old Man and the Sea" by Hemingway?

The Old Man and the Seaby Ernest Hemingway is a short novel that Hemingway wrote in 1951 and that was first published in 1952. The work is written in the third person, using Hemingway's characteristic simple language and syntax. The third person narrator of the story is omniscient, having access to the actions and minds of all characters in the story. The narrator is not intrusive, and does not break the illusion of the story...

The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway is a short novel that Hemingway wrote in 1951 and that was first published in 1952. The work is written in the third person, using Hemingway's characteristic simple language and syntax. The third person narrator of the story is omniscient, having access to the actions and minds of all characters in the story. The narrator is not intrusive, and does not break the illusion of the story by directly addressing readers or reflecting on the fictional nature of the story. 

The two main characters of the story are Santiago, an aging Cuban fisherman, and Manolin, a young boy who was his apprentice. Santiago has been unlucky and gone 85 days without catching a fish. On the 86th day, he sets out to sea and manages, in a heroic battle, to catch an 18-foot marlin, but sharks follow the scent of its blood and eat most of its flesh before he can get it back to the harbor, meaning that he will not be able to earn much money from it. Santiago is badly injured in this voyage. Manolin, who has had faith in Santiago despite the long run of bad luck, feels vindicated in his faith in Santiago by this record catch. 

How is the tone determined from a text?

The previous post has some great tips! I just wanted to add a strategy that works well for my students. To find tone, it is helpful to use an acronym called DIDLS (I did not come up with this myself; as far as I know, it is a well-known and widely used strategy and I’m not sure who originally created it). DIDLS stands for Diction, Imagery, Details, Language, and Syntax. When reading a work for tone, it is helpful to go through each of these steps.

Diction: How does the word choice show the author’s tone? Are the words particularly dark, uplifting, concrete/abstract, etc? The type of word choice an author uses can help to determine how he/she feels about a subject.

Imagery: Imagery refers to word that relate to the senses. If, for example, the author uses a lot of bright, colorful imagery, that might indicate a more positive tone, whereas dark imagery might indicate a negative tone. Similarly, pleasant sound or smell imagery leads us to a positive tone, while unpleasant sound or smell imagery would lead to a more negative tone.

Details: When finding tone, ask yourself what kind of details the author includes. If the details are more scientific or straightforward, the tone is probably neutral or objective. If the details are geared more toward memories of the author’s life, the tone might be more personal and/or nostalgic.

Language: What kind of figurative language does the author use? Finding metaphors, similes, etc. can lead you to the tone. A metaphor about a woman’s beauty, for example, might show the author’s admiration for her.

Syntax: Syntax refers to the sentence structure and word order. Most conventional sentences go in order of subject-verb-object, but authors can play around with this convention to change the tone of their work. If they put a verb first, for instance, that will place more emphasis on the action rather than the subject. Additionally, placement of clauses and phrases can affect the tone.

It is also important to know what you are looking for when finding tone. In most cases, when a teacher asks you to find an author’s tone, he/she is asking you to find the author’s attitude toward the subject of the piece. So if you are analyzing Emily Dickinson’s “Because I Could Not Stop for Death,” for example, you might say that her tone toward death is welcoming or appreciative, depending on your reading of the poem. That is something people tend to get confused about. Tone is not about how the poem makes you feel; rather, it is how the author uses words to express his/her feelings about a particular subject.

In Dickens' David Copperfield, what does Peggotty tell David about Yarmouth?

Peggotty told David that he was going to see her family in Yarmouth and it would be fun, and nothing about his mother's wedding.

Peggotty did not tell David that his mother was getting married; she just told him that it would be fun to visit Yarmouth with him.  Yarmouth was where Peggotty’s family was.  David’s mother wanted Peggotty to take him there so that she could be alone with her new husband, Mr. Murdstone,...

Peggotty told David that he was going to see her family in Yarmouth and it would be fun, and nothing about his mother's wedding.

Peggotty did not tell David that his mother was getting married; she just told him that it would be fun to visit Yarmouth with him.  Yarmouth was where Peggotty’s family was.  David’s mother wanted Peggotty to take him there so that she could be alone with her new husband, Mr. Murdstone, for a while. 

'Master Davy, how should you like to go along with me and spend a fortnight at my brother's at Yarmouth? Wouldn't that be a treat? … Oh, what an agreeable man he is!' cried Peggotty, holding up her hands. 'Then there's the sea; and the boats and ships; and the fishermen; and the beach; and Am to play with—' (Ch. 2) 

David thinks this sounds good, but he worries about his mother.  Peggotty tells him that his mother has the neighbor and plenty of company.  David doesn’t know what she means, and off they go to visit Peggotty’s colorful family.  This includes Daniel Peggotty, Ham, and little Em’ly, as well as the grumpy Mrs. Gummidge. 

When David returns from this fun little trip, he finds his mother married to the tyrannical Mr. Murdstone.  Murdstone is very controlling, and David’s weakling of a mother cannot stand up to him or his overbearing mother.  Murdstone is soon abusive to David as well. 

‘David,' he said, making his lips thin, by pressing them together, 'if I have an obstinate horse or dog to deal with, what do you think I do?'

'I don't know.'

'I beat him.'

…

'I make him wince, and smart. I say to myself, "I'll conquer that fellow"; and if it were to cost him all the blood he had, I should do it. …’ (Ch. 4)

After beating David, Mr. Murdstone sends him off to a school where they abuse and neglect the boys.  David's mother does not fair much better, and she eventually dies.  Murdstone sends David to work in one of his factories.

What does Realism explain best and what does it miss? What does Radicalism explain best and what does it miss? What does Liberalism explain best...

I really like this question; it nicely emphasizes how each of these theories has merits and flaws, and the truth is best understood as some combination of them.

Realism assumes that nations act in their own self-interest, and largely ignores the internal structure of each nation. It assumes that nations act to achieve greater wealth and power, and basically ignores all other considerations. Realism is actually quite useful at explaining war; when international institutions break down and different nations end up in conflict, assuming that they will act in their own self-interest is often quite accurate. Realism is often associated with a cynical attitude that human beings are selfish and cruel to one another. What realism largely fails to explain is peace, especially when there is a clear imbalance of power as in the world today in which the US is a global hegemon. (During the Cold War, Realists could say that it was the fear of being nuked by the Soviet Union. But that doesn't make much sense now that the Soviet Union has fallen.) If the US were simply a self-interested economic agent, it would try to conquer everyone to maximize its own wealth; yet that clearly doesn't happen. Not that the US never engages in war, but warfare today is rarer and causes fewer deaths than at any other time in history.

Radicalism assumes that basically all politics is reducible to economics, and specifically to class warfare between the rich and the poor. Radicals argue that war is almost always born of the rich finding some new way to exploit the poor. Radicalism does a good job of explaining imperialism and colonialism, which really do seem a lot like ways for nations governed by the rich to exploit nations full of poor people; but Radicalism fails to explain why imperialism and colonialism are so much less common now than they once were, as well as why global poverty is rapidly declining and is now at the lowest level in history. If history were just a march of the rich exploiting the poor, how could it be that millions of people have been lifted out of poverty by globalized markets?

Liberalism assumes that nations act according to their own values, and focuses quite heavily on the internal structure of governments, particularly the question of how democratic versus authoritarian they are. Liberalism postulates that democratic nations will get along better with one another than they do with authoritarian nations (or than authoritarian nations do with each other), and that by spreading democracy we can ultimately spread peace. Liberalism is often associated with an optimistic attitude that human beings are kind and altruistic toward one another. Liberalism doesn't say that conflict doesn't exist, but usually explains conflict through misunderstanding or faulty institutions rather than the inherent selfishness of human beings. Liberalism does a much better job of explaining the trend toward global peace that has been going on for centuries and greatly accelerated after the end of WW2; as democracy spread and the democratic US became the global hegemon, the institutional structures were established to greatly reduce war. Where Liberalism comes up short is in understanding why authoritarian governments form and persist in the first place; if democracy is so great, why doesn't everyone know that? It turns out that some people really are very selfish and cruel, and a sound theory of human behavior must take that into account.

Constructivism emphasizes that states aren't actually things in the way that rocks or trees or people are physical objects in the world---they are social constructions, created by the collective action of many people. Thus, they reject the idea that nations even have well-defined "self-interest", instead arguing that nations act according to the interests and values of their people, aggregated or selected by some mechanism of government (such as a dictator or voting system). Constructivists also often focus on identity, particularly a sense of national identity that motivates people to act in the (perceived) interests of their nation. They often discuss how norms and attitudes toward identity can change over time and under different circumstances. Constructivism is clearly right about the basic fact that states are socially constructed (which Realism especially tends to ignore), but without additional insights (such as from Liberalism, the other international relations theory most compatible with it), it can often be too vague and nebulous to really be useful in predicting or changing the behavior of nations. In some ways Constructivism is more of a meta-theory than a theory per se; it places restrictions on what sort of theory makes sense---anything ascribing motivations directly to nations is suspect---but doesn't make detailed theoretical predictions on its own.

How is David an idealistic ten year old boy in The Chrysalids by John Wyndham?

David is idealistic because he thinks that he can keep Sophie’s condition a secret, and he also thinks that he and the other telepaths can remain hidden in their strict society.  In Waknuk, everyone has to be the same.  You have to conform to the True Image.  It is idealistic for David to think that any of them are going to be able to blend in and get away with it. 

When David finds out that Sophie has extra toes, he doesn’t even seem to realize the significance of it. 

It was so heavy a promise that I was quite resolved to keep it completely — even from my cousin, Rosalind.  Though, underneath, I was puzzled by its evident importance. It seemed a very small toe to cause such a degree of anxiety. But there was often a great deal of grown-up fuss that seemed disproportionate to causes. So I held on to the main point — the need for secrecy. (Ch. 1) 

At ten years old, living with a tyrannically religious zealous father, David should know that having extra toes or anything unusual about you is unacceptable in Waknuk.  Sophie’s parents are terrified when he finds out and beg him to keep it a secret.  He agrees.  David just doesn’t get the position they are in.  

David’s naiveté has been ongoing.  He is telepathic, and he and the other telepathics have been in hiding for years.  Even David’s little sister has the ability to read minds.  They can only read the minds of each other, so they have been able to hide it.  

“I want you to keep it secret. I want you to promise that you will never, never tell anyone else what you have just told me — never. It's very important: later on you'll understand better how important it is. You mustn't do anything that would even let anyone guess about it. Will you promise me that?” (Ch. 4) 

Uncle Axel told David not to tell anyone.  He was aware of how idealistic and naïve David was, and worried that he would not understand what danger he was in.  Eventually, it all comes crashing down on David when Sophie is discovered, and then Petra.

In Chapter 5 of Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, what problem does Gatsby begin to have as his secretive meetings with Daisy continue?

Gatsby begins to have a problem with Daisy as his dream of recapturing her is effectively over and he must now work to sustain her interest in him.

For years Jay Gatsby has worked and planned for the attainment of his "grail," Daisy Buchanan. So nervous and excited is he on the day of their meeting at Nick's cottage that he runs out into the rain and walks around Nick's house. When he re-enters, he...

Gatsby begins to have a problem with Daisy as his dream of recapturing her is effectively over and he must now work to sustain her interest in him.

For years Jay Gatsby has worked and planned for the attainment of his "grail," Daisy Buchanan. So nervous and excited is he on the day of their meeting at Nick's cottage that he runs out into the rain and walks around Nick's house. When he re-enters, he is wet and awkward, knocking over Nick's clock on the mantel, a symbolic gesture that signifies the end of time.

Having rekindled the love of Daisy and impressed her with his wealth and splendid possession--such as his gold bathroom fixtures and his custom-made English shirts, which bring tears to her eyes as she buries her head in them--Gatsby must now try to maintain Daisy's interest and desire for him. For, it is obvious that the quantitative value of money is what rules Daisy's desires, as evinced by her change of heart in marrying Tom after he sent her a $350,000 pearl necklace.

Indeed, it is "the colossal vitality of his illusion" (Ch.5) that Jay Gatsby must maintain in order to keep his hold on Daisy. He may love her, but Daisy's passion is ignited by the charm of money and social ambition.

What is a summary of The Winter's Tale?

The Winter’s Tale begins in Sicily, where King Polixenes of Bohemia visits his childhood friend King Leontes and his wife Queen Hermione. They reminisce and joke until Leontes is overcome with jealousy: “Too hot, too hot!” he says to himself when watching his wife and friend together. He even wonders if his son Mamillius is really his. A convinced Leontes plots to kill Polixenes and arrest Hermione, who is pregnant.

Though Polixenes escapes with Camillo, a Sicilian nobleman, Hermione is arrested. Leontes insists on throwing a pregnant woman in prison and forcing her to stand trial after giving birth to her baby, which he refuses to believe is his. He orders to “take it [the baby] hence / And see it instantly consumed with fire.” No one believes that Hermione is unfaithful, so Leontes is persuaded to let it be abandoned in “some remote and desert place.”

Mamillius, separated from his mother, grows sick and dies. Hermione collapses, and she is also reported dead. Realizing his mistake, Leontes repents his madness—for sixteen years. Time divides the play and transitions the audience into the next section, which takes place sixteen years later. Leontes still grieves, but Perdita, the abandoned baby, has been discovered and raised by shepherds in Bohemia.

The second half of the play is comedic, featuring singing, joking, dancing, and romance. Perdita and Polixenes’s son Florizel are in love, much to the king’s chagrin. We also meet the charlatan Autolycus, who steals and sings songs. Camillo, who has been with Polixenes since their escape, convinces Florizel and Perdita to run away to Sicily, where Polixenes is forced to follow. There, Leontes reunites with his friend and eventually discovers that Perdita is his long-lost daughter.

The noblewoman Paulina, who has staunchly defended Hermione and condemned Leontes for sixteen years, decides that it is time to unveil a lifelike sculpture of Hermione. The remarkable statue appears to come to life. In fact, it is Hermione herself, who has apparently been alive but in hiding. This reconciliation unites the play’s tragic first half and comedic second half in a bittersweet conclusion.

Why is Portia melancholy in The Merchant of Venice?

When we first meet Portia in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, she proves to be a very melancholy individual, despite her vast riches and elite status as an heiress of Belmont. As we get to know Portia better, however, we begin to understand the source of Portia's sadness. Portia is primarily melancholy because she doesn't have any control over her own romantic affairs, as her father decreed any man who wishes to marry her...

When we first meet Portia in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, she proves to be a very melancholy individual, despite her vast riches and elite status as an heiress of Belmont. As we get to know Portia better, however, we begin to understand the source of Portia's sadness. Portia is primarily melancholy because she doesn't have any control over her own romantic affairs, as her father decreed any man who wishes to marry her must solve an elaborate riddle. The riddle involves three caskets: one is silver, one is gold, and one is lead. Any man who wishes to marry Portia must pick the correct casket out of the three, a task that proves maddeningly difficult. To make matters worse, it's apparent Portia does not really like most of the men vying for her hand in marriage. Indeed, her descriptions of her primary suitors illustrate her contempt for many of them. As such, it's hardly a surprise that Portia struggles with melancholy when we first meet her, as the obstacles she faces would be enough to frustrate any person. 

What are the major aspects of change (political; migration-- both internal and external; wars--civil wars, foreign inventions and invasions and...

Your question covers a large sweep of history. During the time period of the 18th to 21st centuries, there was a large migration of people from Europe and parts of Asia to the New World. Immigrants in the 19th century largely came from southern Europe, including Spain, Greece, and Italy, and from eastern Europe, including Russia and the Slavic countries. Jews also immigrated in large numbers to the New World, facing anti-Semitism in Europe and Russia. They were propelled by wars and violence, including ongoing wars in Europe and civil wars and rebellions in countries such as Italy. Many faced dire poverty, limited opportunities, and persecution. These immigrants went to both North and South America, fueling urbanization and the growth of large multicultural port cities such as New York and Buenos Aires in Argentina. In addition, in the United States, there was internal migration, such as the Great Migration--the movement of African-Americans from the south to the north in the period after Reconstruction to the 1960s. They came north in great numbers during World War I and World War II in search of jobs. Similarly, in Argentina, many people went to the city of Buenos Aires in search of jobs (and this type of urbanization occurred in other cities such as Mexico City). These cities became multicultural in nature, with Spanish, Italian, Syrian, Lebanese, Greek, Jewish, Polish, Russian, Irish, English, and other types of immigrants. In addition, these cities grew in response to industrialization, as the mechanization of agriculture reduced the numbers of people needed on farms. These formerly rural people flocked to cities, swelling their populations. New industries formed in cities such as New York and Buenos Aires to attract people to work there. 

Politically, both the U.S. and countries in South America such as Argentina went through revolutions to become independent from their European colonizers (Great Britain and Spain, respectively). Following independence, they both also went through civil wars (the U.S. in the 1860s over states' rights and slavery) and Argentina after independence in 1810 (over the question of whether to have a centralized government or a federation). The United States went through various periods of militarism, such as fighting the Spanish-American War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and Vietnam, and Argentina became a military dictatorship in the 1960s. This period lasted until 1983, when the military dictatorship was brought down in part because of the country's failed participation in the Falklands War against Great Britain in 1982. The military and political developments of the U.S. and countries such as Argentina diverged in the 20th centuries, as the U.S. became a world power, while Argentina was more isolationist. While the U.S. and countries in Latin America such as Argentina were similar in their 19th century immigration patterns, political origins, industrialization, and urbanization, their development in the 20th and 21st centuries has differed. 

Why does Sir Henry go to Baskerville Hall after he receives a letter that warns him to stay away in The Hound of the Baskervilles?

Sir Henry refuses to be scared away from his new home.

Sir Henry is the last descendant of Baskerville Hall (supposedly).  He inherits the estate when his uncle Sir Charles dies of very mysterious circumstances.  There is some thought that the curse of the Baskervilles, including the Hound of the Baskervilles, is at fault. 

Sir Henry hires Sherlock Holmes because he gets an odd note warning him away from Baskerville Hall.  The note is made...

Sir Henry refuses to be scared away from his new home.

Sir Henry is the last descendant of Baskerville Hall (supposedly).  He inherits the estate when his uncle Sir Charles dies of very mysterious circumstances.  There is some thought that the curse of the Baskervilles, including the Hound of the Baskervilles, is at fault. 

Sir Henry hires Sherlock Holmes because he gets an odd note warning him away from Baskerville Hall.  The note is made of pasted printed words.  It says, “As you value your life or your reason keep away from the moor.”  Only the last word was written by hand.  Sir Henry is also upset because he lost one of his boots. 

Holmes asks Sir Henry if he is going to go to Baskerville Hall, because there “seems to be danger.”  Henry asks where the danger is coming from, human or animal, and Holmes says that this has yet to be determined.  However, Henry is not willing to back off. 

“… There is no devil in hell, Mr. Holmes, and there is no man upon earth who can prevent me from going to the home of my own people, and you may take that to be my final answer.” (Ch. 4) 

Sir Henry has a very strong personality.  Watson notes that he has “the fiery temper of the Baskervilles.” Sir Henry tells Holmes that he needs time to process everything.  He tells Holmes and Watson to come back later so they can discuss it. 

Holmes is able to deduce quite a lot from the note and the boot.  He is a very astute detective and has extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.  He knows there is really no curse, but is interested in the case.  In a rather strange move, he sends Dr. Watson to Baskerville Hall and stays behind.  It later turns out that he goes to the moor too, secretly, to work on the case, while Watson has no idea he’s there.

What is a graphic element?

Graphic elements can have two slightly different meanings, and while I see this is posted under "Literature," I am not sure which context is being asked about. I will address both. As a general matter, something that is graphic is something that is visual, and that definition is the underpinning for both contexts I will discuss.

In literature, we call graphic elements those that have a vivid enough description to allow the reader to see...

Graphic elements can have two slightly different meanings, and while I see this is posted under "Literature," I am not sure which context is being asked about. I will address both. As a general matter, something that is graphic is something that is visual, and that definition is the underpinning for both contexts I will discuss.

In literature, we call graphic elements those that have a vivid enough description to allow the reader to see what is being described. Sometimes I hear this term applied to a passage that is quite violent or sexual in nature, and you will hear parents complain from time to time that they do not want their children exposed to graphic elements.  Nevertheless, this term is applicable to any description that allows us to easily visualize. This could be a description of a person, natural phenomenon, building, or action. One book that immediately comes to my mind when I hear this term is Young Men and Fire by Norman Maclean. He goes deep into the heart of a fire, and when you are done reading, the images you are left with are vivid and seared into your memory. 

In poetry, graphic elements have a bit of a more specialized meaning. There is a strong visual aspect to poetry: the layout of the words on the page (haikus are a good example), or the use or absence of capitalization, as seen in e.e. cummings's poetry. Poets takes care with the graphic elements, which can contribute to the understanding and enjoyment of the poem. Otherwise, the poet could just write in paragraphs. Lines are broken up into the units they are can be just as much due to graphics as they can be done for rhythm or rhyme. Found poetry, certainly, is dependent upon its graphic elements.

No matter whether you are discussing literature in general or poetry in particular, remember that either way, graphic elements are visual elements—either those you can visualize because of the narrative or those you can appreciate because of their particular layout on the page. 

In Shakespeare's Coriolanus, what are the primary reasons for Coriolanus' failing to become consul?

There are many factors that play into Coriolanus losing the consulship. For one, he treats the commoners with disdain. When they complain about starvation, he greets them by asking, “What's the matter, you dissentious rogues, / That, rubbing the poor itch of your opinion, / Make yourselves scabs?” Coriolanus threatens to slaughter them for their rebellious proposals, mocking and insulting them for the audacity to be hungry. He believes they deserve to be hungry because...

There are many factors that play into Coriolanus losing the consulship. For one, he treats the commoners with disdain. When they complain about starvation, he greets them by asking, “What's the matter, you dissentious rogues, / That, rubbing the poor itch of your opinion, / Make yourselves scabs?” Coriolanus threatens to slaughter them for their rebellious proposals, mocking and insulting them for the audacity to be hungry. He believes they deserve to be hungry because they are so cowardly and useless.

Coriolanus is reluctant to follow the tradition of asking for the people’s voices. He does not think they are important enough to have this right, and he appears to be bashful about showing them his scars (a part of the ritual). Whatever the case, he responds to them with sarcasm and scorn. Coriolanus says to himself, “Most sweet voices! / Better it is to die, better to starve, / Than crave the hire which first we do deserve.” While he finds the experience to be debasing, and he refuses to reveal his wounds, Coriolanus continues to ask for their votes.

Because of his attitude towards the plebeians, the sneaky senators Brutus and Sicinius easily convince the crowds to rescind their endorsement. Brutus and Sicinius worry about Coriolanus’s cruel attitude, but, more importantly, they are concerned about keeping their power. They remind the commoners that Coriolanus might be a hero, but he also despises them. They even instruct the crowd how to act when they confront Coriolanus, directing them to rail against Coriolanus and to paint the two of them in a positive light.

As you can see, Coriolanus loses the position of consul because of his proud personality and attitude, but he is also a victim of the swayable mob and the calculating senators.

What are Hamlet's inner struggles and how are they significant?

Hamlet’s inner struggles revolve around whether or not he should kill the king to avenge his father.  He is told by the ghost of his father that he needs to kill his uncle.  He is not happy with his uncle to begin with, because he did not feel that it was appropriate for him to marry his mother.   Hamlet feels conflicted about the process of murdering his uncle.  His struggles bring chaos to Denmark.

The approach that Hamlet takes is a little meandering.  He decides to pretend to be crazy so that he has free reign.  In the process, he really hurts Ophelia, who thought he loved her.  His crude behavior toward her saddens and confuses her.  His mother and uncle are also confused.  They even ask his friends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern what is going on with Hamlet, and his uncle finally sends him away while giving them instructions to kill him.

It is not that Hamlet never has any chances to kill his uncle.  Hamlet has a chance to kill Claudius when he sees him kneeling and he is vulnerable.  He thinks that his uncle is praying, and doesn’t want to kill him then because he feels that he will go to Heaven instead of Hell.  It turns out that he is not praying, because he found himself unable to do so, but Hamlet didn’t know that.

KING CLAUDIUS

[Rising] My words fly up, my thoughts remain below:
Words without thoughts never to heaven go. (Act 3, Scene 3) 

Hamlet's idea to have a play with a plot that is similar to the murder doesn't work out either.  He seems to have thought that his uncle would just confess and that would be that.  He doesn't.

Hamlet’s frustration with his mother leads to inner conflict as well. He is angry at her for marrying his uncle so soon after his father’s death.  He is a frustrated, confused, and angry young man.  This is why he accidentally killed Polonius.  He didn’t mean to, because Polonius had not wronged him.  However, that did not stop him from using Polonius’s body to continue his madness act.

In A Man of the People by Chinua Achebe, is Chief Nanga a corrupt man?

Chief Nanga was initially a teacher before he became a politician. As a political figure, he is very corrupt and greedy. He has a wife, but he still sleeps with Odili’s girlfriend when Odili brings her over to his house. Nanga takes money meant for community development to build a commercial four-story building for his personal gain. He bribes Max in efforts to slow down the new party. However, Max directs the funds to support...

Chief Nanga was initially a teacher before he became a politician. As a political figure, he is very corrupt and greedy. He has a wife, but he still sleeps with Odili’s girlfriend when Odili brings her over to his house. Nanga takes money meant for community development to build a commercial four-story building for his personal gain. He bribes Max in efforts to slow down the new party. However, Max directs the funds to support the party’s activities and Odili’s campaigns. Nanga retaliates by having Max killed. Chief Nanga tries to bribe Odili to stop him from contesting for the political position against him. Nanga employs unscrupulous tactics and violence to win elections. He stuffs ballot boxes during elections in order to maintain his position as a leader. Chief Nanga does everything in his power to protect his status among the people. However, his ill deeds eventually work against him.

In Three Men in a Boat by Jerome, what does J. discover about himself after reading the book at the British Museum?

J., the narrator, was suffering from nearly every disease listed in this medical reference book. He searched the entries from A to Z, from “ague” to “zymosis”; and he realized that he had most of the symptoms that he saw. The only malady he couldn’t match up with was “housemaid’s knee.” Since he was a gentleman who probably never did housework of any kind, this makes sense.

I sat and pondered. I thought what an...

J., the narrator, was suffering from nearly every disease listed in this medical reference book. He searched the entries from A to Z, from “ague” to “zymosis”; and he realized that he had most of the symptoms that he saw. The only malady he couldn’t match up with was “housemaid’s knee.” Since he was a gentleman who probably never did housework of any kind, this makes sense.

I sat and pondered. I thought what an interesting case I must be from a medical point of view, what an acquisition I should be to a class! Students would have no need to “walk the hospitals,” if they had me. I was a hospital to myself. All they need do would be to walk round me, and, after that, take their diploma.

This is our first encounter with J., coming early in Chapter I. We quickly learn that he is prone to taking off on tangents away from the main story line. He also tends to use exaggeration and sarcasm. It’s impossible for him to have every ailment known to mankind. He’s either admitting that he’s a hypochondriac, or he’s poking fun at himself. He also quietly makes fun of us for believing his story.

Is abusive behavior inherent or developed?

Psychology has long highlighted the strong impact of environment on the behavioral response of people, especially children. Babies are heavily dependent on their parents or caretakers. Thus, their actions significantly affect the psychological and social development of the child, extending as far as adulthood and when they become parents later on.

Studies have shown that negative actions such as (but not limited to) ignoring, rejecting, isolating, terrorizing, and verbally abusing a child have severe and...

Psychology has long highlighted the strong impact of environment on the behavioral response of people, especially children. Babies are heavily dependent on their parents or caretakers. Thus, their actions significantly affect the psychological and social development of the child, extending as far as adulthood and when they become parents later on.

Studies have shown that negative actions such as (but not limited to) ignoring, rejecting, isolating, terrorizing, and verbally abusing a child have severe and long-lasting effects on them. These children often grow up feeling that they are inferior and lacking in some way. They could even end up doing the same to their own children when they become parents. This supports that behavior is influenced heavily (though not determined) by the environment in which a person grows up in and is developed.

Behavioral epigenetics sort of backs this up with more tangible evidence. A study involving genetically identical twins was conducted. They were observed as they aged and found to have epigenetic variations later on. This is due to the fact that even though identical twins start out as genetically identical they go through life in different ways and experience different things. These caused epigenetic changes (differences in expression of genes) in response to their experiences and, in turn, affected various aspects of their being (physical, behavioral, etc). Another study involved the mothering styles of rats and induced changes in their offspring. Mice that were well nurtured were found to be "less anxious" than ones that were neglected.

The same study demonstrated effects of introducing alcohol to male mice prior to mating. Offspring of these males were found to be more "aggressive, take more risks, and display more anxiety-like behavior." This, on the other hand, may support the idea that there may be influences on an offspring's behavior genetically before they are even born, thus indicating that behavior may be partly inherent (at least to rats).

What is an example of satire in Chekhov's play The Bear?

Satire is defined as constructive criticism delivered by mocking an element’s shortcomings in a humorous way to bring attention to the issue. The criticism is achieved through irony and sarcasm with the aim of instigating change or addressing a sensitive topic.

In the play by Chekhov, Smirnov is pressed to pay his debt, but none of his debtors wants to pay him back. His situation gets worse when Popova, one of his debtors, claims she...

Satire is defined as constructive criticism delivered by mocking an element’s shortcomings in a humorous way to bring attention to the issue. The criticism is achieved through irony and sarcasm with the aim of instigating change or addressing a sensitive topic.

In the play by Chekhov, Smirnov is pressed to pay his debt, but none of his debtors wants to pay him back. His situation gets worse when Popova, one of his debtors, claims she is in no mood to discuss financial issues. Smirnov employs sarcasm to draw attention to his predicament and hopes that Popova will pay.

SMIRNOV: Thank you. [He shrugs his shoulders.] And they expect me to stand for all that. The toll-gatherer just now met me in the road and asked why I was always worrying. Why, in Heaven's name, shouldn't I worry? I need money; I feel the knife at my throat. Yesterday morning I left my house in the early dawn and called on all my debtors. If even one of them had paid his debt! I worked the skin off my fingers! The devil knows in what sort of Jew-inn I slept; in a room with a barrel of brandy! And now at last I come here, seventy versts from home, hope for a little money, and all you give me is moods! Why shouldn't I worry?

Smirnov is relentless in his quest, and Popova accuses him of not knowing how to treat a lady. Smirnov employs sharp irony and sarcasm to criticize Popova’s beliefs. His criticisms bring to attention the general gender issues that exist within the society.

SMIRNOV: [Imitating her.] Not at all funny--vulgar! I don't understand how to behave in the company of ladies. Madam, in the course of my life I have seen more women than you have sparrows… I am not speaking of present company, but of women in general; from the tiniest to the greatest, they are conceited, hypocritical, chattering, odious, deceitful from top to toe; vain, petty, cruel with a maddening logic and [he strikes his forehead] in this respect, please excuse my frankness, but one sparrow is worth ten of the aforementioned petticoat-philosophers.

Why would a country have a low GDP per person? Why is Madagascar so poor?

That's the trillion-dollar question, isn't it? If we knew precisely what determined the GDP of a country, development economics would be a solved problem.

But I can tell you some things that most economists believe are important to the development (or lack thereof) of a country's GDP.

The first is institutions. In order to achieve and maintain prosperity, a country must have institutions that support economic development, which generally means some form of democracy and free market economy. The precise form can vary (Switzerland is more democratic than the United Kingdom, while the United States has more free markets than France, yet all are about equally prosperous), and there are some exceptions, especially in the short run (Saudi Arabia has horrible totalitarian institutions, but will remain wealthy as long as the oil continues to flow). But in general, you need to have a free government and a free market if you really want to achieve a high level of economic development.

Does Madagascar have these things? Not really. Madagascar has a moderately free government with a high level of corruption, and in the 1970s implemented a number of socialist economic policies that undermined investment and stunted economic growth. Starting in the 1980s many of these policies were reformed, and Madagascar transitioned to a more liberal export-oriented economy. But with corruption high, investments intended to support growth have been skimmed off to line the pockets of individual government officials.

Which brings me to the next two key features: infrastructure and education. Successful economies always have a large infrastructure base of roads, rails, electric power, and clean running water; most regions of Madagascar have none of these things. Prosperous countries have educated populations where almost everyone is literate and a large fraction go to college; Madagascar has hardly anyone with college degrees and a large fraction of the population who are outright illiterate.

Trade is another important source of wealth, which Madagascar has had trouble maintaining due to their geographic isolation. Their large sea coast could help with trade (it is certainly better than being landlocked), but they are very far from most of the major trade hubs like Tokyo, New York, London or Singapore.

Notice what I haven't mentioned: Land or natural resources. Madagascar does have many natural resources, but these actually turn out not to be all that relevant to economic development. They don't hurt necessarily (at one time economists actually thought they did hurt, an idea called the "Resource Curse", but it turns out that the problem isn't the natural resources per se but the extractive institutions that tend to build up around them if they are the only source of wealth. The US and Norway are quite rich in natural resources, and they do just fine because they have sound institutions.)

To make matters worse, Madagascar has a long history of colonialism and extractive institutions, starting centuries ago with French colonization. Even after independence they were never fully able to shed these institutions, and still have an economic system that works better at enriching a small few than it does at achieving overall prosperity.

Reforming Madagascar to achieve economic growth will be no small task, but we must not give up hope. Other countries such as Korea and Japan have lifted themselves out of similar levels of poverty in the past. Once we figure out exactly how, perhaps we can achieve it elsewhere as well.

Is Portia the most appealing character in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice? If so, why?

The answer to this question depends upon the reader's subjective opinion. However, there are quite a few reasons to find Portia appealing, and so it is certainly possible to see her as one of the most appealing characters of the play. She uses her wealth for good, for instance, by offering to repay Antonio's loan. When that doesn't work, Portia shows true ingenuity by disguising herself as a lawyer and outsmarting Shylock in court. Indeed,...

The answer to this question depends upon the reader's subjective opinion. However, there are quite a few reasons to find Portia appealing, and so it is certainly possible to see her as one of the most appealing characters of the play. She uses her wealth for good, for instance, by offering to repay Antonio's loan. When that doesn't work, Portia shows true ingenuity by disguising herself as a lawyer and outsmarting Shylock in court. Indeed, it would appear that, when compared to most of the men in the play, Portia proves herself to be truly superior, as she wields intelligence and a vast store of resources with confident authority. As such, one can't help but assume that it will be Portia, and not her husband Bassanio, who will be in charge. In recognizing these admirably feminist qualities, one can't help but regard Portia as one of the most appealing characters in the play.  

Does the quote "a plague on both your houses" have any significance in the play of Romeo and Juliet?

Mercutio utters this line -- "A plague o' both your houses!" -- after he has been killed by Tybalt.  Tybalt came looking for Romeo in order to challenge him to a fight because he was offended by Romeo's presence at the Capulets' big party the night before.  When Tybalt eventually finds Romeo, Romeo has just come from marrying Juliet -- Tybalt's cousin -- and so Romeo refuses to fight this man who he is now...

Mercutio utters this line -- "A plague o' both your houses!" -- after he has been killed by Tybalt.  Tybalt came looking for Romeo in order to challenge him to a fight because he was offended by Romeo's presence at the Capulets' big party the night before.  When Tybalt eventually finds Romeo, Romeo has just come from marrying Juliet -- Tybalt's cousin -- and so Romeo refuses to fight this man who he is now related to, by marriage.  Mercutio, not knowing this, interprets Romeo's refusal to fight as a "dishonorable, vile submission" (3.1.72), and he fights Tybalt on Romeo's behalf.  Romeo comes between them in a well-meaning but ill-advised attempt to stop the fight and promote peace, and Tybalt is able to stab Mercutio under Romeo's arm.  For several reasons, then, Mercutio feels that his death is actually the fault of both Romeo and Tybalt: as he lays dying, he curses both "houses," or families, for their roles in his death.  He curses each family to have some tragedy, and, obviously, both families do experience tragedy when their children -- Romeo and Juliet -- kill themselves rather than live without one another.

How do events help mold the personality of the protagonist in The Miracle Worker?

Anne Sullivan (the protagonist) was shaped by her childhood. Born in poverty to an Irish Catholic family, she was sent to a mental hospital and was raised among the mentally ill. With her brother Jimmy, Anne survived the horrible conditions until her brother’s died from tuberculosis. After she became legally blind, Anne was sent to a school for the blind to complete her education. Upon graduation, she accepted a position as a teacher for Helen...

Anne Sullivan (the protagonist) was shaped by her childhood. Born in poverty to an Irish Catholic family, she was sent to a mental hospital and was raised among the mentally ill. With her brother Jimmy, Anne survived the horrible conditions until her brother’s died from tuberculosis. After she became legally blind, Anne was sent to a school for the blind to complete her education. Upon graduation, she accepted a position as a teacher for Helen Keller in Tuscumbia, Alabama. Anne explains her background to Helen’s step-brother, Jimmy, in an effort to make him understand why she will not give up.

Anne’s strength of character guided her in facing the conflict from the Keller family as a Northerner and Irish (the Irish were discriminated against during this time in American history). She persevered in spite of Captain Keller’s antagonism, Mrs. Keller’s interference, and Helen’s animosity. Determined to reach Helen in the same way she herself was reached and rescued, Anne managed to lead Helen out of the darkness of ignorance.

At the end of the story, Mr. Fisher seems to have turned his back on Erik. In fact, Paul compares his father to "those friends who abandoned Erik,...

I believe that Mr. Fisher reacts this way out of his own guilt. He realizes that he has been enabling a monster. He is only able to see this after the police and others are involved. Once the wider community sheds light on Erik’s wrongdoing, he can no longer ignore it and keep it a family secret. He can no longer deny it to himself and his family members. I’d also that he acts this...

I believe that Mr. Fisher reacts this way out of his own guilt. He realizes that he has been enabling a monster. He is only able to see this after the police and others are involved. Once the wider community sheds light on Erik’s wrongdoing, he can no longer ignore it and keep it a family secret. He can no longer deny it to himself and his family members. I’d also that he acts this way out of self-preservation. He sees that the community has turned its back against Erik, and he responds by doing the same. When the community celebrated Erik, Mr. Fisher did as well. Now that the community finds Erik deplorable, Mr. Fisher rejects him as well.

While Erik’s friends have the ability to turn their backs on Erik without acting immorally, I would argue that by turning his back on Erik, Mr. Fisher once again neglects his duties as a parent. Originally, Mr. Fisher neglects his parental duties by fixating on Erik’s football skills and completely ignoring his horrifically cruel actions. Mr. Fisher implicitly condones Erik’s attack on Paul (which partially blinds him!) as well as his other bullying behaviors. However, by turning his back on Erik, Mr. Fisher does not do his duty; he does not get Erik the help he needs. While it is easy to see Erik as a remorseless villain, it is also possible to see him as someone in need of adult intervention. He, like Paul, is still very young. By completely abandoning him, Mr. Fisher once again takes a “hands off” approach to Erik’s misbehavior.

Discuss why Zinn disputes Kissinger's idea that "History is the memory of states."

In A People's History of the United States, Zinn disagrees with Kissinger's vision of history because he feels that it silences the voices of people's experience.

Zinn feels that Kissinger's version of history is a form of mythology. Zinn believes that when history is told from the nation's point of view, it removes the struggles that different groups experienced.  Highlighting this struggle is Zinn's primary motivation:

My viewpoint, in telling the history of the...

In A People's History of the United States, Zinn disagrees with Kissinger's vision of history because he feels that it silences the voices of people's experience.

Zinn feels that Kissinger's version of history is a form of mythology. Zinn believes that when history is told from the nation's point of view, it removes the struggles that different groups experienced.  Highlighting this struggle is Zinn's primary motivation:

My viewpoint, in telling the history of the United States, is different: that we must not accept the memory of states as our own. Nations are not communities and never have been, The history of any country, presented as the history of a family, conceals fierce conflicts of interest (sometimes exploding, most often repressed) between conquerors and conquered, masters and slaves, capitalists and workers, dominators and dominated in race and sex. 

Zinn believes that Kissinger's view of history emphasizes national progress over individual struggle.  Telling history from the point of view of nations eliminates the fight people waged against the Status Quo.  Kissinger's view of history also removes the possibility of the nation being wrong.  For example, Zinn emphasizes how important it is to tell the story of the United States Constitution from the perspective of African-Americans, people that the original document silenced.

Zinn views Kissinger's understanding of history as dangerous.  When we embrace the historical narrative of states or governments over individual people, Zinn feels we are more prone to justify national exercises of power.   For example, if we look at industrialization as simply a time where America advanced, we tend to forget the struggles that took place between workers and management.  As Zinn demonstrates in his chapter "Robber Barons and Rebels," we would forget how American government and industry colluded with one another to deny the interests of the poor.  Zinn believes struggles like this one define the essence of historical scholarship. The historian must be committed to retelling this story of conflict because it encompasses the "people's" stories.

This paradigm is established in chapter 1 of A People's History of the United States.  This is the chapter where Zinn analyzed Columbus's subjugation of the Native Americans.  Kissinger's vision of history would view Columbus as a hero, the man who discovered America. Zinn's embrace of history as the story of the people, the narrative of "conflict," compels him "to tell the story of the discovery of America from the viewpoint of the Arawaks." Zinn does not believe that the nation should be more important than "a people's history."  As a result, he disagrees with Kissinger's perspective on history.

In the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, how does his audience shape his rhetorical strategies? What kinds of "common ground" does he...

Douglass, who published his account of slavery in 1845, knows that he can appeal to his white Christian audience through their religious beliefs. Therefore, he uses Christianity as common ground to sway his readers against slavery. Since slaveowners used the Bible, especially the exhortation that slaves should obey their masters, to justify slavery and its cruel oppressions, Douglass highlights the difference between religious hypocrisy and true Christianity which practices an ethic of love and mercy. 

The slave auctioneer's bell and the church-going bell chime in with each other, and the bitter cries of the heart-broken slave are drowned in the [hypocritical] religious shouts of his pious master.

Douglass insists that no true Christian can support a system as cruel as slavery. 

Douglass uses appeals to the common humanity he shares with his white readers. He knows that he is writing to decent people who wish to know more about the slave experience. In a famous passage, he asserts he is as much a human being as any white man, but contrasts his fate with that of his free audience. This is the language of sentiment or pathos, designed to arouse his audience's emotions and stir his readers to action (to take slaves under a "protecting wing"):

You are loosed from your moorings, and are free; I am fast in my chains, and am a slave! You move merrily before the gentle gale, and I sadly before the bloody whip! You are freedom's swift-winged angels, that fly round the world; I am confined in bands of iron! O that I were free! O, that I were on one of your gallant decks, and under your protecting wing! 

And as the above passage suggests, Douglass uses vivid descriptive language throughout his work to put white readers in the place of the slave, so they can feel concretely, with all five senses, what it is like to be a slave. These are not abstract, logical arguments, such as those often used to justify slavery, but stories that allowed the reader to identify with the slaves. For example, he describes, not in general terms, but in careful detail the whipping suffered by his Aunt Hester from her master:

Before he commenced whipping Aunt Hester, he took her into the kitchen, and stripped her from neck to waist, leaving her neck, shoulders, and back, entirely naked. He then told her to cross her hands, calling her at the same time a d——d b—-h. After crossing her hands, he tied them with a strong rope, and led her to a stool under a large hook in the joist, put in for the purpose. He made her get upon the stool, and tied her hands to the hook. She now stood fair for his infernal purpose. Her arms were stretched up at their full length, so that she stood upon the ends of her toes. He then said to her, "Now, you d——d b—-h, I'll learn you how to disobey my orders!" and after rolling up his sleeves, he commenced to lay on the heavy cowskin, and soon the warm, red blood (amid heart-rending shrieks from her, and horrid oaths from him) came dripping to the floor.

Douglass understood that his audience valued a woman's modesty and sexual purity and thus points attention to the fact that Hester is an attractive woman with whom the master is probably having sexual relations and also shows the master's brutal disregard for any modesty as he strips her from the waist up to beat her. Douglass knows that this treatment of a woman, from the suggestion of rape to humiliation to inflicting a savage beating, is likely to revolt his audience and create common ground for abolishing slavery. 

In Gathering Blue by Lois Lowry, how has the Ruin Song been distorted?

Gathering Bluetakes place in a post-apocalyptic society that has been rebuilt without technology. Because most citizens of the society are illiterate, the community preserves its history orally through a Ruin Song that tells an account of people from the beginning to the present. The Song is sung once per year by the Singer, who wears a ceremonial robe and holds a ceremonial staff. The robe and staff depict through embroidery and carving the events...

Gathering Blue takes place in a post-apocalyptic society that has been rebuilt without technology. Because most citizens of the society are illiterate, the community preserves its history orally through a Ruin Song that tells an account of people from the beginning to the present. The Song is sung once per year by the Singer, who wears a ceremonial robe and holds a ceremonial staff. The robe and staff depict through embroidery and carving the events described in the Song.

Kira has heard the song each year since she was a child, but she was not able to remember it all and couldn't pay attention to the whole song. One day Jamison speaks to her about one of the scenes on the robe that she has been repairing: a scene of skyscrapers toppling with bursts of flame and explosion behind them. Part of the song is intelligible, but another part that Jamison recites seems to contain nonsense words: "Ravaged all,/ Bogo tabal/ Timore toron/ totoo now gone." Jamison explains that those are the names of lost places, places destroyed in the cataclysm.

We can decipher them as names of cities in North and South America: Bogata, Colombia; Baltimore, Maryland, United States; and Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Kira has chanted the lines because of their rhymes, but she doesn't understand them until Jamison explains them. Even then, she wishes she knew what the lost places looked like.

Are there examples of allusion in Reading Lolita in Tehran by Azar Nafisi?

An allusion is a brief reference to a person, place, or thing of cultural, literary, political, and social significance.

In the novel, Azar Nafisi alludes to Virginia Woolf's seminal work A Room of One's Own by stating that the little group of female students she has managed to bring together are making "a space of our own." In her time, Virginia Woolf was famous for proposing the idea that women needed their own income and...

An allusion is a brief reference to a person, place, or thing of cultural, literary, political, and social significance.

In the novel, Azar Nafisi alludes to Virginia Woolf's seminal work A Room of One's Own by stating that the little group of female students she has managed to bring together are making "a space of our own." In her time, Virginia Woolf was famous for proposing the idea that women needed their own income and space in order to produce good fiction. In Azar's memoir, her allusion to Woolf's work is an assertion that Iranian women need their own space to flourish as vibrant citizens of their society. To the author, the idea of women's freedom has come under siege ever since the Iranian Revolution.

Another example of an allusion is when Yassi, one of Azar's students exclaim "Upsilamba!" when Azar takes a tray of tea into the dining room. The word is actually a fanciful creation by the Russian-American author of Lolita, Vladimir Nabokov. It is found in the second chapter of Nabokov's novel Invitation to a Beheading and references how the enlightened are able to perceive possibilities (in word and deed) beyond the mundane and beyond the norms accepted by the masses. We see this in Azar's memoir:

I said I associate Upsilamba with the impossible joy of a suspended leap. Yassi, who seemed excited for no particular reason, cried out that she always thought it could be a name of a dance- you know, "C'mon, baby, do the Upsilamba with me." Manna suggested that the word upsilamba evoked the image of small silver fish leaping in and out of a moonlit lake. . . For Azin it was a sound, a melody. Mahashid described an image of three girls jumping rope and shouting" Upsilamba" with each leap. For Sanaz, the word was a small African boy's secret magical name. Mitra wasn't sure why the word reminded her of the paradox of a blissful sigh. And for Nassrin it was a magic code that opened the door to a secret cave filled with treasures.

As time progresses, "upsilamba" becomes a coded word among Azar's circle of literature enthusiasts. It is a word that propels their self-determinism within the confines of an oppressive society.

Yet another example of allusion is when Azar argues for the necessity of literature in her native Iran. Her reason? "Poshlust" reminds her there is a close relation between "banality and brutality" and that each day, she increasingly comes ever more to the realization that the horrors perpetuated upon defenseless people are often combined with "the falsely important, the falsely beautiful, the falsely clever, the falsely attractive." Brutality is juxtaposed with falsity to lull the people into a state of apathetic resignation. To Nabokov, "poshlust" is "corny trash, vulgar clichés, Philistinism in all its phases, imitations of imitations, bogus profundities, crude, moronic, and dishonest pseudo-literature" (Paris Review: The Art of Fiction). In one word, "poshlust" describes the juxtaposition of the mundane and the brutal that is at once destabilizing as well as dehumanizing.

What is the rhyme scheme of the poem, "Power of Hope"?

The second, fourth, and seventh lines make use of end rhyme (rhymes: see, me, company), and the sixth and eighth lines do as well (rhymes: dead, dread). Lines nine and eleven also rhyme (rhymes: soul, goal) as do lines ten and twelve (rhymes: hand, sand). Finally, lines fourteen and sixteen rhyme (rhymes: mind, find). Thus, the poem does not possess anything approaching a regular rhyme scheme.  However, if you need someone to express the end...

The second, fourth, and seventh lines make use of end rhyme (rhymes: see, me, company), and the sixth and eighth lines do as well (rhymes: dead, dread). Lines nine and eleven also rhyme (rhymes: soul, goal) as do lines ten and twelve (rhymes: hand, sand). Finally, lines fourteen and sixteen rhyme (rhymes: mind, find). Thus, the poem does not possess anything approaching a regular rhyme scheme.  However, if you need someone to express the end rhyme in the poem in a straightforward way, it would go something like this: abcbdefbfghghijklkmn. Each letter corresponds to a line in the poem, and if that letter has a match or even two in the string, this indicates that those lines possess rhyming words at their ends.

Imagine the world economy is made up of two economies, a small home economy and a large foreign economy. What would be the effect on the home...

Because the home economy is small relative to the foreign economy, we can safely assume that changes at home will not significantly affect the state of the foreign market. This is called a "small open economy" model.

If foreign income increases, its demand for goods will increase, and this includes goods that are imported from the home economy. Therefore demand for home goods will increase, resulting in money flows from outside.

These money flows will increase demand for our currency, which since the exchange rate is floating will rise in value. This will reduce money flowing in as exports and increase money flowing out as imports. When equilibrium is reached, both exports and imports should have increased, increasing our GDP but not changing our balance of trade.

An increase in the foreign money supply will cause inflation in the foreign economy, and also increase money flows into the home economy. Between both the increased exports and the foreign inflation, the home currency will have even more pressure to increase in value. But since the exchange rate is fixed, this can't happen. So the currency will remain undervalued.

Instead, the home economy will begin accumulating foreign reserves, and will begin to experience a trade surplus and a current account surplus. This will make the home balance sheet stronger, which may seem desirable (some economists think it is desirable in some cases), but carries four large downsides:

First, it pulls reserves from other countries, who may not be able to sustain their current account deficits indefinitely. If their deficit collapses, so must our surplus.

Second, it can trigger inflation in the local economy, which monetary policy may be insufficient to control.

Third, it means exchanging real goods for nothing more than paper, gradually reducing the real wealth of the home country.

Fourth, it introduces inefficiencies into the global trade system that reduce wealth for everyone, similar to a tariff or quota.

How does Harper Lee present prejudice throughout the novel?

Harper Lee presents prejudice throughout the novel by depicting the thoughts and actions of the racist community members of Maycomb. Lee also depicts prejudice by illustrating how negative rumors adversely affect Boo Radley's life.Lee uses specific characters such as Mrs. Dubose, Mrs. Merriweather, and Bob Ewell to depict the prejudice against African Americans in Maycomb. Lee also uses characters like Miss Stephanie Crawford to portray the prejudiced feelings towards Boo Radley. The community member's...

Harper Lee presents prejudice throughout the novel by depicting the thoughts and actions of the racist community members of Maycomb. Lee also depicts prejudice by illustrating how negative rumors adversely affect Boo Radley's life. Lee uses specific characters such as Mrs. Dubose, Mrs. Merriweather, and Bob Ewell to depict the prejudice against African Americans in Maycomb. Lee also uses characters like Miss Stephanie Crawford to portray the prejudiced feelings towards Boo Radley. The community member's racist comments and negative attitude towards Atticus also depict their prejudiced beliefs. Lee also portrays how the community's prejudice harms specific individuals. Tom Robinson becomes a victim of racial injustice and the rumors surrounding Boo Radley give him a negative reputation throughout Maycomb. Despite the overwhelming prejudice throughout the community, Atticus remains tolerant and morally upright. He teaches his children to treat others equally which aids in Scout and Jem's moral development.

In what ways did Truman help improve the lives of African-Americans?

President Truman did several things to help African-Americans. He established a committee on civil rights in 1946 that examined how violence impacted African-Americans. This committee issued a report that showed how the country treated African-Americans poorly while claiming to be a democracy that fought against the harsh policies of a communist system that mistreated people. In 1947, he created a national committee to determine ways to get laws passed that would help protect people from...

President Truman did several things to help African-Americans. He established a committee on civil rights in 1946 that examined how violence impacted African-Americans. This committee issued a report that showed how the country treated African-Americans poorly while claiming to be a democracy that fought against the harsh policies of a communist system that mistreated people. In 1947, he created a national committee to determine ways to get laws passed that would help protect people from discrimination.

In 1948, two executive orders were passed. One ended segregation in the military. Having a segregated military seemed to be contrary to the idea that we were fighting for freedom and for people to be treated properly. The other executive order dealt with civil service. It gave African-Americans fair employment treatment in this area. There was an election for President in 1948. The election may have been a factor in the creation of these executive orders.

In 1951, President Truman signed an executive order that said that any company that wanted to be a supplier of military equipment had to have a policy of treating minorities equally.

Many people don’t think of Harry Truman when they think about civil rights. However, President Truman did many things to help African-Americans in their quest to be treated equally.

How does the movie Harry Potter and The Prisoner of Azkaban relate to the real world today?

There is an atmosphere of fear in the movie Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban because a prisoner escapes from a supposedly inescapable prison. At the beginning of the movie, we see how the media covers the events in the wizard newspapers and that there are wanted posters everywhere. The posters are a little scary, with the prisoner Sirius Black jumping out at you with a crazed look.

In our world, unfortunately, a state...

There is an atmosphere of fear in the movie Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban because a prisoner escapes from a supposedly inescapable prison. At the beginning of the movie, we see how the media covers the events in the wizard newspapers and that there are wanted posters everywhere. The posters are a little scary, with the prisoner Sirius Black jumping out at you with a crazed look.

In our world, unfortunately, a state of fear is very common. We see media coverage not of prison escapes, but of terrorist attacks. This is not to say that we have never had frightening and high-profile prison breaks. Like in the movie, there seems to be a dark, depressing cloud of dread upon us at times when we hear about mass shootings and other tragedies. Dementors may not be real, but these incidents frighten us and soak the life and happiness out of us just the same. We cannot seem to escape the media coverage of tragic events.

With our 24-hour media, there is also a lot of misinformation. In Harry Potter, Sirius Black turns out to be innocent. When everyone is in a hurry to scoop the story, the headline is remembered, not the retraction. A lot of people have been the victims of unfairly ruined reputations.

Describe the system of trade between European nations and their colonies.

The word that is usually used to describe the system of trade between European countries and their colonies is “mercantilism.”  The mercantile system was one which was set up in such a way as to benefit the European countries without much regard for the colonial economies.

People in this era of history generally believed that countries needed to export in order to become rich.  The idea was that a country could not be wealthy unless...

The word that is usually used to describe the system of trade between European countries and their colonies is “mercantilism.”  The mercantile system was one which was set up in such a way as to benefit the European countries without much regard for the colonial economies.

People in this era of history generally believed that countries needed to export in order to become rich.  The idea was that a country could not be wealthy unless it exported more than it imported.  In order to help this happen, countries regulated their colonies’ trade.  The European countries required the colonies to buy only from the mother country, not from any other country.  The European countries required all of the colonies’ exports to go through the mother country. The colonies could not sell directly to any foreign countries.  This increased each country’s exports and reduced its imports.

In addition, the European countries tried to ensure that the colonies would be a market for their exports.  The Europeans would often prohibit the colonists from producing various goods that were produced in the mother country.  By doing this, they forced the colonists to buy those goods from the mother country, thus increasing its exports.

In short, the European countries used trade with their colonies as a way to enrich themselves.  They did this with little regard for the needs or desires of the colonists.  We typically call this the mercantile system.

According to the essay "Supernatural and Shakespeare," during Shakespeare's time "witches were a convenient way to explain all the terrible...

If the Weird Sisters truly know the future and are not simply manipulating Macbeth into thinking that they do, then everything that happens in the play is the result of fate, or destiny, and not effects of Macbeth's corruption.  In other words, if the future is knowable, then it must be fated, and if it is fated, then no one can be blamed for their role in bringing it about; Macbeth is exonerated from responsibility...

If the Weird Sisters truly know the future and are not simply manipulating Macbeth into thinking that they do, then everything that happens in the play is the result of fate, or destiny, and not effects of Macbeth's corruption.  In other words, if the future is knowable, then it must be fated, and if it is fated, then no one can be blamed for their role in bringing it about; Macbeth is exonerated from responsibility for his deeds.  For example, the witches tell Banquo, "Thou shalt get kings, though thou be none" (1.3.68).  In other words, Banquo's line of descendants will produce kings.  This is true.  The king on the throne when Macbeth is first performed is King James I (James VI of Scotland), and he can trace his lineage back to Banquo. 

Further, when the Weird Sisters call up the apparitions in Act 4, scene 1, the first is an "armed head" (a disembodied head, wearing a helmet) which says that Macbeth must "Beware Macduff" (4.1.73).  It turns out that Macbeth should fear Macduff because it will be Macduff who kills him by cutting off his head after Macbeth has donned his armor.  Therefore, the apparition -- created and conjured by the Weird Sisters -- not only knows the future but takes the shape of something to occur in the future as well.  Likewise, the second apparition appears as a "bloody child" who says, "Laugh to scorn / The power of man, for none of woman born / Shall harm Macbeth" (4.1.81-83).  Macduff was not technically born, as he tells us later, he was from his "mother's womb / Untimely ripped," i.e. he was born via Caesarean section  (5.8.15-16).   So, the apparition appears as a bloody child because a child born by C-section would be bloody since the mother's been cut, and it knows the future: that Macbeth will be killed by someone not "born."  Finally, the last apparition, "a child crowned, with a tree in his hand," says that "Macbeth shall never vanquished be until / Great Birnam Wood to high Dunsinane Hill / Shall come against him" (4.1.96-98).  The child's appearance gives a clue as to how this will happen: a rightful king (Malcolm, child of Duncan) will march on Dunsinane with his army, each soldier holding up a bough of a tree in order to shield his army's numbers from Macbeth's lookouts.  Again, the apparition (produced by the witches) knows the future.

Ultimately, then, Macduff isn't in control of his fate: he is destined to kill Macbeth.  Malcolm isn't in control of his fate: he is destined to lead an army against Macbeth.  This means that Macbeth cannot be in control of his fate either: he must perform the actions that lead him into this place at this time, and thus we cannot fault him for killing Duncan because that action was only the one to set this destiny into motion.  It was fated too.  If we accept that the Weird Sisters know the future, then that means the future is knowable, and if the future is knowable then we do not possess the free will to change it; we are only pawns of fate and thus not responsible for our actions.

In Monster by Walter Dean Myers, how does Steve act when he is around people in his neighborhood?

There are several scenes throughout the novel Monster which depict Steve Harmon hanging around with people in his neighborhood. Steve Harmon wishes to gain notoriety for being tough and has recently begun hanging out with a group of thugs. Early in the novel, Steve has a flashback to when he was sitting on a stoop smoking a blunt with James King, Johnny, and Peaches. Steve is shy and doesn't say much as the others discuss...

There are several scenes throughout the novel Monster which depict Steve Harmon hanging around with people in his neighborhood. Steve Harmon wishes to gain notoriety for being tough and has recently begun hanging out with a group of thugs. Early in the novel, Steve has a flashback to when he was sitting on a stoop smoking a blunt with James King, Johnny, and Peaches. Steve is shy and doesn't say much as the others discuss the ideal place to rob. Johnny doesn't know Steve because he's never seen him before and says, "Since when you been down?" (Myers 56). In another scene, a person named Freddy asks where Steve went to school and Osvaldo Cruz begins to make fun of Steve. Steve tries his best to act tough and threaten Osvaldo, but Osvaldo mentions that he is in a gang called the Diablos. When Freddy comments that Steve hangs with some bad dudes, Osvaldo says, "He don't hang with nobody. He's just a lame looking for a name" (Myers 86).

In other scenes that depict Steve talking with King about the robbery, Steve is rather short and does not speak a lot. Overall, Steve is relatively new to the group of people he's been hanging out with and doesn't speak much. Although he is shy, he tries his best to fit in by smoking blunts and making minor comments. Steve Harmon is simply trying to act cool and make a name for himself by hanging out with tough individuals in his neighborhood.

In The Communist Manifesto, what do Marx and Engels have to say about people in pain and who experiences pain under capitalism?

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels suggest that the way capitalism exploits labor for profit is painful for the working class.  

The Communist Manifesto is quite direct in attributing exploitation for profit as the reason that people suffer. Marx and Engels argue that capitalism is predicated on manipulation.  The wealthiest of people generate their profit at the cost of workers.  For example, the owner of the factory is able to make more money...

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels suggest that the way capitalism exploits labor for profit is painful for the working class.  

The Communist Manifesto is quite direct in attributing exploitation for profit as the reason that people suffer. Marx and Engels argue that capitalism is predicated on manipulation.  The wealthiest of people generate their profit at the cost of workers.  For example, the owner of the factory is able to make more money when the worker is paid less for their efforts.  The less the worker receives, the more profit the owner makes.  Marx and Engels believe this helps to explain why capitalism is synonymous with suffering and pain for the working class:  "These labourers, who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the fluctuations of the market."  Marx and Engels feel the wealthy have no qualms about increasing the suffering of the working class in order to meet the demands of the marketplace.

Marx and Engels are emphatic in suggesting that capitalism's success is dependent on the workers' pain. Suffering is unavoidable.  Marx and Engels describe how "masses of labourers, crowded into the factory, are organized like soldiers" and exist "under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants."  Such control makes workers "slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois State."  In order for capitalism to thrive, Marx and Engels believe that the laborer is "daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the overlooker, and, above all, by the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself."  Suffering is inevitable when capitalism reduces workers to slaves.  When the drive for economic profit makes workers a mere "commodity," the end result is the workers' pain.  As a result of its objectification of the working class, Marx and Engels blame capitalism for the suffering it causes. 

What does the phrase "teach the torches to burn bright" suggest in Romeo and Juliet?

Juliet is so beautiful that even torches are not as bright as she.

This quote is from this line when Romeo first sees Juliet, before he knows who she is.

O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! (Act 1, Scene 5)

Basically, with this line Romeo is saying that Juliet is so beautiful that her beauty is brighter than a torch.  She is so bright, that the torches learn to be bright from her....

Juliet is so beautiful that even torches are not as bright as she.

This quote is from this line when Romeo first sees Juliet, before he knows who she is.

O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! (Act 1, Scene 5)

Basically, with this line Romeo is saying that Juliet is so beautiful that her beauty is brighter than a torch.  She is so bright, that the torches learn to be bright from her.  It is another metaphor on Juliet's beauty.

Romeo is infatuated by Juliet’s beauty and, blinded by her beauty, has not really stopped to consider anything else.  Romeo goes on and on with many beautiful lines about Juliet’s looks, but never once does he mention her personality.  He compares her to the sun, and a jewel, and says in this line that the torches get their light from her.  However, he is not talking about her glowing personality.  He is again talking about her looks.

Beauty too rich for use, for earth too dear!
So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows,
As yonder lady o'er her fellows shows. (Act 1, Scene 5)

Romeo proposes soon after.  Romeo has only just met Juliet, and he didn’t even have a real conversation with her.  They share a cute conversation that was all in metaphors.  What is she like?  Does she like roses?  Is she allergic to strawberries?  What does she do on weekends?  He has no idea!  He has spent no time with this girl.  He just took one look at her and fell head over heels in love with her.

In "By the Waters of Babylon," what did John realize about his people's stories and legends?

John realizes that the “gods” are just humans who were killed by the Great Burning.

There was some kind of catastrophic apocalyptic event in John’s world that turned New York City into a wasteland.  John’s community became very primitive, but is clearly derived from what was once our society. His people are afraid of the places we used to inhabit, and do not realize that’s what they are.

It is forbidden to cross the great...

John realizes that the “gods” are just humans who were killed by the Great Burning.

There was some kind of catastrophic apocalyptic event in John’s world that turned New York City into a wasteland.  John’s community became very primitive, but is clearly derived from what was once our society. His people are afraid of the places we used to inhabit, and do not realize that’s what they are.

It is forbidden to cross the great river and look upon the place that was the Place of the Gods—this is most strictly forbidden. We do not even say its name though we know its name. It is there that spirits live, and demons—it is there that there are the ashes of the Great Burning. 

John is studying to be a priest like his father. He has a vision that he should go check out the Place of the Gods, and he does it without fear. Once he is there, he realizes that there are no gods. The places his people think gods inhabited contain the remains and artifacts of dead human beings.

That is all of my story, for then I knew he was a man—I knew then that they had been men, neither gods nor demons. It is a great knowledge, hard to tell and believe. They were men—they went a dark road, but they were men.

John sees a new vision for his people. He decides that they need to reclaim their heritage. Rather than live in fear, they need to rebuild. They should return to New York, and reestablish the society that the people once had on the ashes of the civilization they once thought belonged to the gods.

What does Helen mean by "everything has a lesson and a suggestion" in The Story of My Life?

When Anne Sullivan comes to Helen Keller, she opens up whole new worlds of learning. Despite the fact that little Helen is blind and deaf, Miss Sullivan teaches her language by spelling words into her hand and showing her what they meant. Soon after that, Helen can make sentences. Miss Sullivan helps Helen see the world by describing things to her.

Helen has a great love of nature, so she and Miss Sullivan go outside...

When Anne Sullivan comes to Helen Keller, she opens up whole new worlds of learning. Despite the fact that little Helen is blind and deaf, Miss Sullivan teaches her language by spelling words into her hand and showing her what they meant. Soon after that, Helen can make sentences. Miss Sullivan helps Helen see the world by describing things to her.

Helen has a great love of nature, so she and Miss Sullivan go outside as much as possible. This makes their lessons more sensory and interesting for Helen.

All my early lessons have in them the breath of the woods–the fine, resinous odour of pine needles, blended with the perfume of wild grapes. Seated in the gracious shade of a wild tulip tree, I learned to think that everything has a lesson and a suggestion. "The loveliness of things taught me all their use" (Chapter 7).

Helen can tell there is a lot to experience outside in nature. The combination of the senses she can use and Anne Sullivan’s descriptions allows her to explore the world around her. When she says there is a lesson in everything, she means she is finally able to experience the world on a fuller level now that she has the use of language and someone to explain things to her.

Nature seems to make learning almost any subject easier and more interesting for Helen.

There we spent many happy hours and played at learning geography. I built dams of pebbles, made islands and lakes, and dug river-beds, all for fun, and never dreamed that I was learning a lesson. I listened with increasing wonder to Miss Sullivan's descriptions of the great round world with its burning mountains, buried cities, moving rivers of ice, and many other things as strange (Chapter 7).

While she enjoys studying zoology and botany and using the great outdoors to explore other subjects, Helen has less patience with arithmetic. Anne Sullivan teaches Helen arithmetic by counting beads. She learns to add and subtract this way, but likes going out into nature more.